Differences between Pedagogy and Andragogy: Implications for Online Learning

Research indicates that pedagogy has two definitions: the science or profession of teaching, and the Greek derivation of the art and science of teaching children.  Andragogy, on the other hand, appears to be defined as the science or profession of teaching adults.  In any case, a review of prior research may help to solve this issue by providing a means to differentiate between the two terms, and the three definitions.

Knowles (1980) explained that adults “want to be able to apply whatever knowledge and skill they gain today to living more effectively tomorrow, learning experiences should be organized around competency-development categories, and adults are performance-centered in their orientation to learning” (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).  On the other hand, pedagogy explains that “learners see education as a process of acquiring subject matter content” (Knowles, 1980, p. 44) to be used in the future.  “Curriculums should be organized into subject matter units, (and learners) are subject-centered in their orientation to learning ” (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).

When teaching adults, “the psychological climate should be one which causes adults to feel accepted, respected, and supported; in which there exists a spirit of mutuality between teachers and students as joint inquirers; in which there is freedom of expression without fear of punishment or ridicule” (Knowles, 1980, p. 47).  Due to “the adult’s self-concept of self-directivity, andragogical practice treats the learning-teaching transaction as the mutual responsibility of learners and teacher” (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).  Consequently, the instructor’s role becomes that of a “procedural technician, resource person, and co-inquirer (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).  Wisely, Knowles (1980) noted that when one adult judges another, a childlike treatment emerges, which carries with it “disrespect and dependency” (p. 48).

Adults’ experiences represent “richer resources for learning than is true of children” (Knowles, 1980, p. 50).  Instructors often use teaching techniques that “tap the experience of the adult learners” (Knowles, 1980, p. 50).  For example, activities can include group discussions, case methods, “the critical-incident process, simulation exercises, role playing, skill-practice exercises, field projects, action projects, laboratory methods, consultative supervision, demonstration, seminars, work conferences, counseling, group therapy, and community development” (Knowles, 1980, p. 50).  Knowles (1980) noted that during the developmental tasks used to instruct children, a “readiness to learn” (or teachable moment) arises.  Curiously, adult learners also have “phases of growth and resulting developmental tasks” (Knowles, 1980, p. 51): “the developmental tasks of youth tend to be the products primarily of physiological and mental maturation while those of the adult years are the products primarily of the evolution of social roles” (p. 51).

“Children start fairly early to see themselves as being self-directing in broadening areas of their lives; they start accumulating experience that has increasing value for learning; they start preparing for social roles (such as through part-time jobs) and therefore experience adultlike readinesses to learn; and they encounter life problems for which they would like some learnings for immediate application” (Knowles, 1980, p. 58).  Consequently, “many of the principles of andragogy have direct relevance to the education of children and youth” (Knowles, 1980, p. 58).  Challenging children to progress at a rate they are capable of, and assimilating them more freely into andragogical learning, creates a new paradigm for teaching and learning.  The new paradigm could better define how e-learning tools might improve learning for children and adults.

Supporting such a paradigm was considered by Goodmurphy, Branton, Callens, & Gedies (2000) who wrote that “four of andragogy’s five key assumptions apply equally to adults and children. The sole difference is that children have fewer experiences and pre-established beliefs than adults and thus have less to relate.” Differences between children and adult learners becomes less noticeable, and “similarities become more cohesive in and among all learning groups–namely adult learners and children” (Goodmurphy et al., 2000, p. 6).  “Andragogical learners still prefer an andragogical approach with elements of pedagogy included while pedagogical learners still prefer a pedagogical approach with elements of andragogy included (Goodmurphy et al., 2000, p. 6).  Such an opinion calls out for further research.  In the meantime, childhood and adult instructors could collaborate so that their feedback could benefit improving learning in secondary schools, especially for children ready and able to learn.  “Andragogy informs us that adults, and many would argue all learners, bring experience, varied needs and expectations, and personal motivation to the learning experience, which supports a learner-centered approach to education” (Goodmurphy et al., 2000, p. 6).

Holmes and Abington-Cooper (2000) discussed three myths typically associated with self-directed learning: “adults are naturally self-directed, when, in reality, their capability for self-directed learning may vary widely; self-direction is an all-or-nothing concept” (par. 29).  The second myth is that “adults have varying degrees of willingness or ability to assume personal responsibility for learning, (and) choose their own goals, objectives, degree of participation, learning content, learning method, and assessments” (Holmes and Abington-Cooper, 2000, par. 29).  The third myth is that “self-directed learning means learning in isolation; however, the essential dimension of self-directed learning may be psychological control that a learner can exert in any solitary, informal, or traditional setting” (Holmes and Abington-Cooper, 2000, par. 29).

Holmes and Abington-Cooper (2000) wrote that “adult education could survive quite nicely without andragogy, but that there is some merit in redefining the term, clarifying it conceptually, and testing it empirically” (par. 29).  Apparently, an inconsistency between pedagogy and andragogy was presented by Knowles (Holmes and Abington-Cooper, 2000).  Relooking at the two terms could substantially improve the teaching strategies used for children and adults, and further explore the over-lapping that exists between the two groups.  Every opportunity should be adopted as soon as possible to take advantage of children transitioning to adult learning methods.  Maximizing learning outcomes is achievable when learners are ready to learn rather than waiting until a particular age arrives.

References:

Goodmurphy, M., Branton, B., Callens, P., & Gedies, T. (2000). Andragogical and pedagogical differences relative to their interfacing with internet resources. Retrieved from http://cclp.mior.ca/Reference%20Shelf/PDF_OISE/andragogical%20pedagogical%20differences.pdf

Holmes, G., & Abington-Cooper, M. (Summer/Fall 2000). Pedagogy vs. andragogy: A false dichotomy? Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/Summer-Fall-2000/holmes.html

Knowles, M.S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education, from pedagogy to andragogy. The Journal of Technology Studies, 26(2).  Retrieved from http://www.hospitalist.cumc.columbia.edu/downloads/cc4_articles/Education%20Theory/Andragogy.pdf

Andragogical Principle: Motivation–Implications for Designing and Delivering Online Learning

Abstract

Motivational influencers affecting adult online learners are complex, and sometimes obscure especially considering that every adult’s quality of learning is individual, and impacted by experential effects.  Furthermore, every adult uses a different learning theory.  Accepting that instructional best practices, and andragogical (self-directed learning) principles are going to influence learning according to past results can cause an extraordinary level of disappointment for the instructor and adult learner.  With online learning technologies rapidly changing, yesterday’s andragogical principles cannot be expected to motivate students to learn as expected by even the most expert online teacher.  Instructors who fail to analyze, adapt, implement, and reflect upon the impact from e-tools can fail before they begin.

Motivation of the Adult Learner 

Why is external motivation needed for an adult to learn?  Is not an internal motivation to gain knowledge enough for an adult to achieve the intended learning?  As Thompson and Deis (2004) explain, learning is an “iterative, dynamic process of change, dependent on the learner’s self-efficacy to take responsibility for his or her own learning” (p. 108).  Self-motivaters can rapidly cause adults to become discouraged such as when learning progress is slower than the adult learner’s expectations, the instructor’s support does not provide the minimum required by the learner or unexpected personal and/or professional responsibilities intercede periodically, which impacts learning efficiency at differing degrees (Thompson and Deis, 2004).  Supporting a good level of self-motivators is achieved by learning activities that include joint input from a facilitator and a learner using reflection and analysis, integrating new activities, and then repeating reflection and analysis (Thompson and Deis, 2004).  Following below is an explanation of the andragogical principles, motivational concerns applicable to the andragogical principles, and andragogical principles’ implications for online design and delivery of adult learning.

Principles of Andragogy as a Learning Theory Explained

Thompson and Deis (2004) summarized Knowles’ principles of andragogy: adult learners’ perception of self-concept transposes from dependence to self-directed, experential knowledge increasingly contributes to a student’s learning resources, developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn, and time orientation related to new knowledge application shifts from a “use-later” application to “need-to-use-now” application, which causes a transition of the learner’s orientation of subject-centeredness to the preferred problem-centeredness orientation.  Motivational constraints arise as adults begin transitioning toward self-direction and a problem-centered orientation, begin applying experential knowledge to new learning, a learner’s readiness to learn becomes muffled, and timeliness for applying new knowledge degrades.  These transitional elements affecting each learner at differing degrees must be addressed when designing and delivering online teaching if learning activities successfully adapt to the learner’s needs.

Motivational Concerns Applicable to Andragogical Principles

Thompson and Deis (2004) assert that assessments provide adults with an evaluative tool, which provides motivation, feedback, self-awareness, empowerment, and a “richer, deeper learning experience” (p. 110).  Assessment supports another of the andragogical principles, which is that “developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108).  If developmental tasks inclusive of assessment components are not included in the online adult learners’ curriculum, there is a very significant lost opportunity for motivating learning.  Thompson and Deis (2004) wrote that the andragogical principle referring to the transition from theory to practice with a focus on problems rather than content explains that “successful education will relate theory to practice, and advocate bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109).

Clardy (2001) presented an alternative approach that “seeks to avoid the demotivating conditions of pedagogy and the denuded substance of andragogy through the use of (synergogical) self-directing learning teams” (p. 20), which use “highly participative, self-directed learning activities” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20).  Clardy (2001) wrote that andragogical principles may provide increased motivation.  However, improved motivation results in decreased “substantive content and learning…(and) implies a uniformity to adult learner needs and motivation that masks important individual differences between learners” (p. 20) as well as “imputes to adults more capability for and interest in self-directed learning than is likely” (p. 20).

Clardy’s (2001) analysis of the andragogical principle is based purely upon a review of Knowles’ and other literature rather than an empirical study.  Clardy (2001) wrote that Knowles’ andragogical theory inadequately identified types of adult learning situations” (p. 31), is resplendent with “radical subjectivism” (p. 20), and suffers from a number of problems in explaining learning effectiveness for adults.  Because improved motivation comes a decrease in “substantive content and learning” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20), Clardy (2001) suggests, and this writer agrees, that further study of the andragogical principles should be examined further.  Whether labeled andragogy or synergogy, strategies to motivate adult learners should not  contradict with learning principles that result in poorer learning as Clardy (2001) suggested.

Houde (2006) wrote that scholars increasingly propose that Knowles’ atheoretical andragogical principles, which are grounded by “observation and experience, rather than logical postulates and/or empirical research” (p. 90), and considered an “artifact from a mechanistic intellectual frame” (p. 90), be validated.  Houde (2006) recommends that validation be accomplished by using two theories: “socioemotional selectivity (focusing on individuals’ relationship with time, goals and emotions), and the self-determination theory (a needs-based theory that proposes an inherent growth drive centering on…autonomy, competence and relatedness)” (p. 90).  Houde (2006) explains that the andragogical principle relative to motivation assumes that adults’ external motivators consist of improved jobs, increased salaries, and so forth.  Internal motivators include aspirations for enhanced job satisfaction, improved self-esteem, quality of life, and so forth.  Houde’s (2006) article addresses the importance of validating the andragogical principle identified as motivation.  By using the two theories noted above to identify and assess tools for motivating adult learners, instructors can integrate improved and well grounded teaching methods to gain advanced learning.

Andragogical Principles’ Implications for Online Design and Delivery of Adult Learning 

“Superior andragogical learning conditions should motivate the learners to feel a need to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108).  Those learning conditions should enable “maximum flexibility and student self-governance” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108).  Therefore, the design and delivery of online curriculums should provide opportunities to gain self-governance, which mirrors the andragogical principle that supports an adult learner’s self-concept transitioning from one of dependence to self-directed.  Such an opportunity would enable learners to plan and process assignments without using mandated guidelines as to how the learning outcomes would be achieved.  For example, “domain-oriented design environments…allow learners (who are) provided contextualized support to engage in their own problems, and exploit breakdowns as opportunities for learning” (EduTech Wiki, 2009, par. 3).  The domain-oriented design allows learners to “create new artifacts and understand existing ones, they tailor instruction to serve the accomplishment of the task at hand, and they do this without disrupting or otherwise interfering with the task” (Fischer, n.d., par. 3).

Thompson and Deis (2004) indicated that another andragogical principle underscores a need for curriculums that “allow learners to rely on themselves as resources of learning” (p. 108).  Instructors who automatically provide resources and internet links to learners with directions to integrate information from those resources to the assigned activities opposes one of the andragogical principles: learners should increasingly contribute experential knowledge to the learner’s portfolio of resources.  Consequently, the design and delivery of e-learning should provide for use of the learner’s previous experiences and practical skills.  For example, a case study presented on web pages, and discussed in conferencing groups, draws upon learners’ past experiences, designed to appeal to the learners’ interests and experiences, and ties into the learning concepts (Illinois Online Network, 2010).

Thompson and Deis (2004) advocated that “successful education relates theory to practice, and advocates bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109).  The “real world” opportunities are provided to adult learners through “simulations, cases, technology, and collaborative learning opportunities between educational institutions and business” (p. 109). Any of these examples or a mix can be integrated into the online learning environment.

An article by Gibbons and Wentworth (2001) advises that e-tools using a discussion forum encourages critical thinking, and ties into “nontraditional learners’ current life tasks and problems” (par. 16).  Non-traditional e-learning techniques and processes that support the development of self-motivation in the adult learner significantly influences academic achievement (Gibbons and Wentworth, 2001).  Asynchronous discussion forums provide learners with more of an opportunity to reflect and revise before responding to peers.

A study by Cercone (2008) provides 13 recommendations for developing online courses based upon the andragogical principles.  For example, an instructional design that supports learners’ active involvement in learning includes activities that require learners to formulate their learning objectives, and learn skills of inquiry, decision-making, and self-regulation.  Embedding learning content within authentic context, requiring learners to create and problem-solve, periodically reflecting upon and revising learning goals, infusing conflicting theoretical resources into activities, requiring reflection about summarized experiences, and using learning contracts, case studies, and simulations to stimulate self-directed learning all aid in motivating adult learners (Cercone, 2008).

“Life is as much about determination as it is about motivation” (Pew, 2007, p. 22).  Today’s instructors should approach teaching from “an informed, deliberate, strategic and tactical perspective (to) improve the educational setting for both educators and learners” (Pew, 2007, p. 22).  Pew’s (2007) comment that “self-reliance is probably the most enduring source of motivation” (p. 23) efficiently describes that students able to rely upon themselves create their own elements of motivation.  Deriving a sense of self-regulated power from internal sources is available to students or instructors in the form of internal motivation.  The power merely needs plucking.

Conclusion

The remarks above address the motivational attributes relative to Knowles’ andragogical principles, and implications that the principles carry for online course design and delivery.  Most significantly, online instruction must influence adult learners to evolve into self-directed learners able to infuse experiential influencers into new knowledge that is germane to their use-now applications.  Gaining insight from adult online students who successfully demonstrate a higher level of evolvement as self-directed learners could provide instructors and instructional designers with invaluable information by using the learners’ perspectives.

References:

Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AACE Journal,16(2),137-159. Retrieved from http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf

Clardy, A. (2006). Andragogy: Adult learning and education at its best? Retrieved from http://grad.towson.edu/program/master/hurd-hrdg-ms/files/Andragogy%20Adult%20Learning.doc.

EduTech Wiki. (2009). Self-directed learning. Retrieved from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Self-directed_learning

Fischer, G. (n.d.). Learning opportunities provided by domain-oriented design environments. Retrieved from http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:1jWoieMK2qYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,33

Gibbons, H.S., & Wentworth, G.P. (2001). Andrological and pedagogical training differences for online instructors. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, (IV)III. Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall43/gibbons_wentworth43.html

Houde, J. (2006). Andragogy and motivation: An examination of the principles of andragogy through two motivation theories. Retrieved from ERIC. (ED492652)

Illinois Online Network. (2010). Instructional strategies for online courses. Retrieved from http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/instructionalstrategies.asp

Pew, S. (2007). Andragogy and pedagogy as foundational theory for student motivation in higher education. InSight: A Collection of Faculty Scholarship, (2), 14-25. Retrieved from http://www.insightjournal.net/Volume2/Andragogy%20and%20Pedagogy%20as%20Foundational%20Theory%20for%20Student%20Motivation%20in%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Thompson, M.A., & Deis, M. (2004). Andragogy for adult learners in higher education. Allied Academies International Conference, 9(1), 107-112. Retrieved from http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/research/allied/2004/financialStudies/pdf/33.pdf

Selecting e-Tools for Effective Online Workshop Delivery for Teaching Adult Learners

Abstract

Although a non-practicing post-secondary teacher must practice the development of online e-tools for teaching, an inherent difficulty arises from the Web, which contains a bottomless availability of such tools.  Assessing the most appropriate and effective e-tools that support best practices, and the newest teaching paradigms, as well as ensuring user-friendly software compatibility, are the primary objectives of an online instructor.  While the online university carries a majority of the burden for assessing an online learner’s software skills, the online instructor must also be prepared and willing to aid the online learner as well.  Identifying the best tools, and providing the most relevant information to e-learners is paramount to meeting those objectives, and achieving a successful learning environment.

Online Adult Learning

Several considerations impacted the choices made in the creation and delivery of a Workshop for adult teachers who are interested in teaching online adult learners.  Georgiades (2009) explained that instructors have a need to know what participants experience before facilitating an online course, and the best way to gain this understanding is to first be a participant.  The Workshop provides the registrants with both opportunities.

Considerations for Selecting the Tool for Workshop Delivery

Deciding upon the use of a Web site for delivering a Workshop for adult learners was based upon previous experience with software created by Wix.com.  Furthermore, if the teacher learners attending the Workshop are physically present, the online Workshop can also be used in a traditional classroom with access to a Whiteboard and individual computer stations.  The Workshop can be presented synchronously and asynchronously.Planning an online Workshop  avails the training to more attendees, and enables the attendees to have first-hand (hands-on) training with online training tools.The Web site software was chosen because it provides a very large choice of professional looking templates, is free, has very good server reliability, and provides the developer with an ability to insert links (including social network links), graphics (clipart), audio and video clips, and is very customizable.  The Web site can also be accessed by attendees after the ice-breaking activity, formal pre-recorded presentation, modules, and exercises are completed. 

As part of the Workshop pre-registration process, registrants supply information necessary for an effective online Workshop.For example, the registrants’ “language fluency, accents, typing skill, and technical expertise” (Horton, 2006, p. 420) as well as available computer equipment, software, and connection speeds is provided.The software requirements are also provided to registrants, and any pre-loading necessary such as for the Adope Flash Player, is completed prior to the Workshop.  Registrants are provided with the Workshop Web site address (http://www.wix.com/dlfpoppins/teachonlinelearners#!home|mainPage), and the Workshop program.  The Workshop design includes a beginning time  at 10:00 a.m. on April 30, 2012, for the ice-breaker.  The Workshop also includes six modules of differing lengths, six assignments generated from the modules, a post-course survey, a contact form, and additional helpful links.  During the synchronous ice-breaker, attendees are informed to link up (after the ice-breaker concludes) with the Workshop Web site to continue the Workshop by watching the introductory video, and to then proceed to the modules.

Web Site Effectiveness

Training developers should ensure that training events help learners apply relevant  skills and knowledge. The Workshop format is effective because it contains e-tools including e-mail, a discussion forum using a Whiteboard, a survey, audio and video conferencing, and take-away e-tools such as the attendees’ personal portfolios and links to e-tools.  A good instructional design propagates the first phase toward designing e-learning, and “contributes concepts, procedures, and techniques” (Horton, 2006, p. 5) as do the other three phases (“software engineering, media design, and economics” (p. 5). These considerations were taken under advisement, and the result is the online Workshop. 

By providing registrants with information beforehand of the technical skill, software, and hardware requirements, and the fact that all registrants are teachers, all participants should be able to learn from the Workshop.  The registrants are also provided a contact person before and during the Workshop in case of issues.  The Workshop delivers material useful for an educator considering to teach online, and the e-tools presented have been shown to enhance online learning. 

A review of the Workshop’s materials and delivery environment would be conducted before scheduling.  “Rapid prototyping involves learners and/or subject matter experts (SMEs) interacting with prototypes and instructional designers in a continuous review/revision cycle” (McLaren, 2008, p. 5).  The survey responses after the Workshop are sent to the SurveyMonkey Web site at http://www.surveymonkey.com, and can be reviewed and shared with other workshop peers.  The Ice-Breaking Activity, the synchronous e-tool, aids classroom teachers transitioning to online instruction due to its similarity to face-to-face activities.  The participants are also exposed to self-directed learning activities because each module is completed when the participant wishes to do so although the directions indicate all modules, exercises, and survey should be completed by a certain date.

The training materials supplied include videos on: Knowles’ six learning theories, today’s adult learner, the Blackboard/Oracle software, creating a learning management system, and delivering an engaging online class.  A 34 minute video is an introduction to the Workshop by Donna Ziegenfuss, University of Utah’s Center for Teaching and Learning Excellence.In the case of a “real” Workshop, the presenter would be the Workshop administrator (in this case, me).

Conclusion

The considerations for selecting the most effective tool for the Workshop delivery logically turned toward an e-learning venue.  By providing educators who are considering a transition to online teaching with a hands-on experience such educators gain exposure to the skills and technology used for online teaching.  Gaining such experience prepares such educators with first-hand exposure to the issues facing online students.  An online Workshop can also be presented in a hybrid method, which may aid educators who have not taught online before with a higher comfort level as transitioning to online teaching continues.  E-learning now occurs as soon as a child can reach the computer keyboard.  Challenging students who have such an early experience with technologies that only now (or recently) instructors have been learning remains a major challenge.  A lack of research on identifying best practices for online teaching even while learning paradigms are shifting every moment creates massive paradoxes.  What is effective teaching and effective learning retains an aura of mystery.

 

References:

Georgiades, J. (2009). Best practices for teaching and presenting live virtual classes and meeting.Retrieved from http://www.parsecinfo.nl/support/whitepapers/best-practice.htm

Horton, W. (2006). E-Learning by Design. John Wiley & Sons: San Francisco, CA: John Wiley       & Sons.

McLaren, A.C. (2008). Designing effective e-learning: Guidelines for practitioners. Distance Learning, (5)2, p. 47. Retrieved from ProQuest.

Change Learning Theory and Impact for Online Learning

Dirkx, Gilley, & Gilley (2004) wrote that “learning and change are conceptualized largely as cognitive, decontextualized, individualized, and solitary practices” (p. 36).  Learning online typically requires a collaborative effort between instructor and learner, and learner to learner.  As learners increasingly face changes in the knowledge and expertise required in work (to deliver products and services) and school (to deliver assignments), learning and change must become less individualized and solitary as people depend upon each other to ensure the required deliverables.  Learning online requires a change toward collaboration and learning communities in order to gain and sustain new knowledge, and the individual becomes part of the new identity (Dirkx et al., 2004).  Ultimately, without every person “improving his or her respective skills, competencies, knowledge, and attitudes” (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 41), change and performance improvement cannot happen. 

In order to gain cooperation during the development of online collaborative teams and learning communities, instructors need to incrementally address change with students by reinforcing and supporting learning activities (Dirkx et al., 2004).  Incremental integration of desired changes improves learners’ acceptance of change.  Accepting change is critical to completely integrating new knowledge/information. 

“Refreezing” (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 43) learners’ new behaviors brought about by the desired changes then invokes a new culture that can support such learning processes as seen in collaborative learning teams.  Such teams fall short of embracing change because of the “lack of instructor or management support for change; internal conflict for resources; recognition and rewards, organizational overconfidence, lack of critical reflection skills, and the lack of commitment to change” (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 45).

AIPPG.com (2011) also reported on Lewin’s Change Theory: “one’s behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself” (par. 1).  Lewin’s concepts included: (1) driving forces, which push in a direction that causes change to occur, facilitate change because they push the person in the desired direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium towards change, (2) restraining forces, which counter driving forces, hinder change because they push the person in the opposite direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium which opposes change, and (3) an equilibrium, which is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces and no change occurs, and can be raised or lowered by changes that occur between the driving and restraining forces.  (par. 2)

AIPPG.com (2004) Lewin’s change theory includes three stages: the first stage is unfreezing, which is the process which involves finding a method of making it possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was counterproductive in some way, is necessary to overcome the strains of Individual resistance and group conformity, and can be achieved by the use of three methods (increase the driving forces that direct behavior away from the existing situation or status quo, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium, and finding a combination of the two methods listed above).  The second stage is moving to a new level or changing…involving a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three, that is in some way more liberating or more productive.  The third stage is refreezing, which establishes the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes the ‘standard operating procedure’; without this stage of refreezing, it is easy to go back to the             old ways.  (par. 2)

Successfully applying Lewin’s change theory requires analyzing the driving and restraining forces before a planned change is implemented.  The implication of Lewin’s Change Theory for teaching adults online could include a school’s preadmission department assessing an online student’s technical and writing skills.  Online learners must have the prerequisite skills required for working within a school’s online platform.  New learners successfully meeting the skills criteria can begin an online class, and incrementally be given assignments to increase the number of technical and writing skills required for the current and future classes.  By carefully monitoring issues new online students are having, and giving them additional tools if needed, the restraining forces decrease, and the SOP becomes the norm.

Kritsonis (2004) presents additional change theories:  Lippitt’s Phases of Change Theory, which posits that “changes are more likely to be stable if they spread to neighboring systems or to sub-parts of the system immediately affected, and changes are better rooted” (p. 1).  For example, online students frequently have to join in an online class forum.  Being given an assignment that provides students with an opportunity to discuss problems occurring with web searches, all students can learn from each other and the instructor about how to solve those problems.  The new skills learned in how to solve those problems then become the normal and accepted manner. 

Prochaska and DiClemente’s Change Theory posits that “people pass through a series of stages when change occurs, and the stages discussed in their change theory are: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance” (Kritsonis, 2004, p. 2). Because progressing through these phases is cyclical, not linear, learners relapse during their efforts to change, and must cycle through the process sometimes repeatedly (Kritsonis, 2004).  Online students who are assigned work teams all have different skillsets for working collaboratively.  A team leader typically emerges, and others begin to follow new processes required of the team as assignments are designed and submitted.  A good team (as monitored by the instructor) assists each other through trouble spots such as with writing, researching, or technical issues.  Some members will achieve completing assignments due to the new advice/processes, and others will not.  Those who do not can be assisted further, patiently, and be given different advice or tools to work through until success is achieved. 

The Social Cognitive Theory presents that “individuals can learn by direct experiences, human dialogue and interaction, and observation.  This theory proposes that behavior change is affected by environmental influences, personal factors, and attributes of the behavior itself” (Kritsonis, 2004, p. 4).  Since learners must exhibit a degree of self-efficacy, be confident in their ability to exhibit the required behavior, and know there is an applicable incentive to perform, such theory can be used by an instructor when an online team must use an online social software program to complete an assignment.  Such a program could be a wiki or blog.  As the team works on developing and using such a program to complete an assignment, all team members observe, interact, and discuss within the program how the project is progressing.  

The Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior, which posits that a learner’s performance of an assigned behavior is ruled by the learner’s positive intention to carry out the behavior (Kritsonis, 2004).  This theory also includes the influence from the learner’s social environment. The change theories often make rational sense but can side-track learning progress if learners’  feelings, attitudes, past input, and experiences are not considered (Kritsonis, 2004).  Disregarding such elements causes resistance.  Instructors and learners must continue to strive together as technology and cultural issues emerge if change is to be recognized as a much needed part of online learning.

References:

AIPPG.com (2011). Change theory: Kurt Lewin. Retrieved from http://currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/change_theory.html

Dirkx, J., Gilley, J., & Gilley, M.A. (2004). Change theory in CPE and HRD: Toward a holistic view of learning and change in work. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6(1), 35-51. Retrieved from ProQuest Education Journals. 

Kritsonis, A. (2004-2005). Comparison of change theories. International Journal Of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 8(1), 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Kritsonis%2C%20Alicia%20Comparison%20of%20Change%20Theories.pdf

 

Critiquing Literature (Research) Articles for a Dissertation

Boote and Beile (2005) wrote that pre-dissertation students need to learn the skills required for analyzing and synthesizing research in order to successfully assess, synthesize, and improve research.  Such skills also enable students to select a dynamic dissertation topic, and apply the most appropriate methods for collecting and analyzing data.  Boote and Beile (2005) explained that having the abilities to “build on the scholarship and research of those who have come before us” (p. 3) is known as generativity, which gives meaning, integrity, and sophistication to research efforts.

Boote and Beile (2005) provided guidelines for a literature review, which includes providing an overview of the study, demarcation of what the study is and is not, and rationalizes the stated decisions.  Boote and Beile (2005) wrote that a literature review should extend beyond Creswell’s guidelines, and “serve a critical role in gatekeeping, policing, and leading to new productive work, rather than merely mirroring research in a field” (p. 7).
A literature review should contain “standards such as consistency, parsimony, elegance, and fruitfulness” (Boote and Beile, 2005, p. 7). Eight elements for a successful literature review include “topicality, comprehensiveness, breadth, exclusion, relevance, currency, availability, and authority” (Boote and Beile, 2005, p. 7).  Boote and Beile (2005) also developed a literature review rubric that assesses “coverage, synthesis, methodology, significance, and rhetoric” (p. 8).  Assembling the following toolbox for evaluating research provides a set of questions based upon prior academic experiences, and from leaders in the field.

Lauer (2004) wrote that policymakers read education research, and attempt to make a decision about whether to trust the results and conclusions, policymakers then need to question if the research should be used to influence education policy, and how to implement changes. Because state and/or local factors, including the cost of implementation, influence policy decisions, researchers must be held accountable for the “quality, coherence, applicability and educational significance of the research” reported.  Conducting an appropriate literature review creates the infrastructure to accountability.

Part I: Toolbox for Evaluating Research Articles

Certain components as noted by Lauer (2004) that represent high quality research espouse a few characteristics such as validity, connection to prior research, ethical standards, and peer review.  The skills required for pre-dissertation students when evaluating prior research permit students (and policymakers) to appraise the trustworthiness of the research being reviewed.  Using the Applied Quick Primer (Lauer, 2004), and answering the following questions aid in achieving a good appraisal of a research article:

‌‌‌1.      Does the research design match the research questions?

2.      Have acceptable technical standards been adopted during data collection and analyses?

3.      Does the current study cumulatively add to the current knowledge base?

4.      Does the current study’s construction arise from prior research studies and conclusions?

5.      Does the current study impart accepted rules for ethical research thus avoiding researcher bias?

6.      Have the articles under review been peer-reviewed?

7.      Are the researcher’s findings coherent, e.g., based upon a theory or conceptual framework?

8.      Have the researcher’s findings been replicated, and representative of a body of research?

9.      Does the research study have external validity such that the findings of the study apply to the situation of interest?  (Situation of interest includes the setting, participants, program or treatment.)

10.   If a policy or practice is changed or adopted based on the research results, what difference, if any, will it make to education?  (A research study’s educational significance is indicated by the effect size of a program or practice.  Additionally, a meta-analysis reflects the average effect size of several studies, and is a more informative tool to determine educational significance.)

11.   Do the researcher’s conclusions infer potentially harmful effects?

        The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System (2011) provided useful guidelines for reviewing literature:

12.    Does the Problem Statement address whose problem it is?

13.    What are the potential negative consequences if the study is never conducted?

14.    Is there clarity in the Purpose Statement?

15.    Does the purpose statement flow directly from the problem statement?

16.    Do the research questions address the study’s purpose and problem?

17.    Is the research method identified?

18.    Does the research design (e.g., case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, causal-comparative, correlational, quasi-experimental, etc.) answer the research questions?

19.    Are the variables/constructs and/or phenomenon/concept/idea identified?

20.    Is the study’s specific population identified, including an estimate of the number of participants who will serve as the sample, based upon a power analysis (quantitative/mixed method) or on design conventions (qualitative)?

21.    Is the geographic location of the study identified?

         Northcentral University (2012) encapsulates the required elements for a dissertation’s  literature review:

22.    Is the literature review an orderly, cohesive, and well-sequenced narrative that relates the problem under investigation to a body of scholarly work?

23.    Does the literature review involve a critical appraisal and synthesis of the relevant published research, including critical appraisals of the research design and methods of key studies?

24.    Does the literature review provide a chronological viewpoint about the research topic with the majority of the literature reviewed sourced from scholarly, peer-reviewed work available in the previous five years?

25.    Does the literature review provide a plentiful number of references to enable impartiality to the study’s topic, and provide readers with a wide-range of information about the importance and background of the project?

        Trochim (2006) wrote that reviewing literature requires an inquiry regarding validity.

26.    Has the literature provided measurements that infer valid conclusions or samples that enable valid inferences?  If so, how is validity stated?

         Mesher (n.d.) wrote that “if an argument is found to be invalid, all judgment must be suspended because, to be acceptable, an argument must be valid” (par. 1):

27.    Does the researcher’s argument represent a valid (acceptable) form?  If so, how is it supported?  (Evaluate the content of its premises to assess truthfulness—verified/justified—or falsehood.)

28.    Does the researcher’s argument represent an invalid (unacceptable) form? If so, how?

29.    Are the claims verified or justified because they follow these three rules?  Explain.

         –the claims do not conflict with what one knows or understands as true;

         –the claims do not impose a belief or acceptance of unsupported claims conflicting

           with what one knows or understands as true;

         –the claims support an appropriate element of proof.

30.    What do I want to learn from reading this article?

         Little and Parker (2010) provided a host of questions useful for an article review:

31.    Is the type of research descriptive (what is there or what do we see), comparative (are findings general or comparable to other elements), or analytical (how does it work or what is the mechanism)?

32.    What are the key points of the article? Example.

33.    Is there proof such as data supporting the article’s conclusions?  Example.

34.    Is there a superior degree of evidence, and any limitations noted in the research methodology?

35.    What is important about the researcher’s conclusions?

36.    Does the research follow the steps of the research process in a logical manner?

37.    Were the participants fully informed about the nature of the research?

38.    Was the autonomy/confidentiality of the participants guaranteed?

39.    Were the participants protected from harm?

40.    Was ethical permission granted for the study?

41.    Was the data gathering instrument described? Was the instrument appropriate? How was it developed?  Were reliability and validity testing undertaken and the results discussed? Was a pilot study undertaken?

42.    If a hypothesis was identified, was it supported?

43.    Was a recommendation for further research made?

         Guidelines from Coughian, Cronin, & Ryan (2008, p. 739) provided an additional idea for critiquing research relative to the qualitative research manner:

44.    Were credibility, dependability, transferability and goodness discussed?

         The Methodist Hospital Employee Intranet (2012) presented guidelines for critiquing a literature review for a mixed-methods research project although most guidelines have already been touched upon:

45.    Is there an integrated summary of the current knowledge base regarding the research problem, or does the literature review contain opinion or anecdotal articles without any synthesis or summary of the whole?

References:

Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. (2011). The writer’s handbook: Learn how to write a review of literature. Retrieved from http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html

Boote, D.N. & Beile, P. (2005, August/September). Scholars before researchers: On the centrality of the dissertation literature review in research preparation. Educational Researcher, 34(6), 3-15. Retrieved from ProQuest.

Coughian, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F. (2008). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 1: quantitative research. Retrieved from http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/step-by-step-guide-to-criti-research-part-1-quantitative-reseawrch.pdf

Coughian, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F. (2008). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 2: qualitative research. Retrieved from http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/2007-step-by-step-guide-to-critiquing-research-part-2-qualitative-research.pdf

Lauer, P.A. (2004). How do I know if the research warrants policy changes? Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/researchwarrants.asp

Lauer, P.A. (2004). Research utility assessment guide. Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/rubric.pdf

Little, J.W., & Parker, R. (2010). How to read a scientific paper. Retrieved from http://www.biochem.arizona.edu/classes/bioc568/papers.htm#reading

Mesher, D. (n.d.). Mission critical: San Jose University critical thinking web page. Retrieved from http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/itl/graphics/main.html

Methodist Hospital Employee Intranet. (2012). Mixed-methods research critique template. Retrieved from http://methodistintranet.fasthealth.com/docs/mixed_crit_template_school.pdf

Northcentral University. (2012). 2011 Dissertation handbook. Retrieved from http://learners.ncu.

edu/ncu_diss/default.aspx?attendance=Y

The most Critical Teaching and Learning Paradigms to Ensure Successful Online Learning

To effectively achieve successful adult online learning, best practices based upon empirical research must continue to evolve via new paradigms.  Until such time that research is sufficiently conducted and reported, considerations about the most critical paradigms required for successful online teaching and learning for the adult student can be sourced from the opinions in recent literature as presented herein.  The prevailing paradigm includes online teaching and learning practices that places more responsibility upon the learner.

For example, today’s online teaching and learning paradigms encompass skills as Dabbagh (2007) explains that include “online learners (who) must be ready to share their work, interact within small and large groups in virtual settings, and collaborate on projects online or otherwise risk isolation in a community growing increasingly dependent on connectivity and interaction” (par. 9).  Learners’ preparations for online learning include a strong comfort level with writing, using Web technologies, and computer proficiency (Dabbagh, 2007).  Furthermore, online learners should have acquired “self-discipline, self-monitoring, self-initiative, and self-management, which are characteristics of self-regulated or self-directed learning” (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 10), which are especially critical due to the physical absence of an instructor.  

A Community of Practice (COP) is a “pedagogical model grounded in a theory of learning as a social process and implemented in an online context through knowledge networks, asynchronous learning networks, and other Internet and Web-based collaborative and communication technologies” (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 10).  An online learner’s “need for affiliation manifests itself in online learning environments” (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 10), which is an example of a COP.  Knowledge-sharing is recognized as intellectual capital.  Although online learning typically includes skills that enable learners to “(a) act competently on their own; (b) have confidence in their knowledge, skills, and performance; and (c) learn how to create and manage a personal presence” (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 13), learners’ needs for affiliation are paramount to achieving  success in an online learning environment.  The collaborative skills required for online learning include “social learning skills, discursive or dialogical skills, self and group evaluation skills, and reflection skills” (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 15). 

The Illinois Online Network and the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois (2010) wrote that successful online teaching and learning provides an accessibility to technology, and online instructors who promote a comfortable learning atmosphere.  A powerful element in today’s online learning paradigms ensures that curriculums are developed or converted according to online learning needs.

Castro (2012) mirrors Dabbagh’s (2007) comments above in that teachers and students no longer exist in the online learning environment as individuals but instead as “participants in a dynamic and collective system of meaning” (p. 165).  Furthermore, the parameters of how learners and administration view online teachers should also include teachers as “images, objects, events, encounters, and so on” (Castro, 2012, p. 165).  “If learning exists at multiple scales, from cellular to cultural, then so does teaching” (Castro, 2012, p. 165).

Further support of the paradigm that addresses learners’ increased participation in their learning is noted by Tu, Sujo-montes, Yen, Chan, & Blocher (2012) who wrote that “learners have freedom to access, create, and recreate their learning content; and they have opportunities to interact outside of a learning system” (p. 13).  Educators focusing on “social, open, and network aspects have integrated various Web 2.0 technologies to support their existing online instruction in a learning management system (LMS)” (Tu et al., 2012, p. 13).  Tu et al. (2012) remarked that “integrating multiple tools simultaneously is the best strategy for infusing teaching and learning paradigms” (p. 13). 

Consequently, Tu et al. (2012) noted that social networking tools represent new teaching and learning potentialities, and have resulted in a “fundamental shift in the way students learn, consume, and produce new artifacts” (p. 13).  Web 2.0 integration has required a modification  from a “more teacher and institution-centered mindset to more distributed, personalized effort and collaboration” (Tu et al., 2012, p. 13).  Tu et al. (2012) also recommended that to avoid the  potential for any disconcerting impact on learning using Web 2.0 integration, teachers can use Open Network Learning Environments (ONLE), and ask students to construct their own Personal Learning Environments (PLE), which can support an effective open network for communicating, interacting, and collaborating.  Learning Management Systems that include a PLE and ONLE  enable learners and educational institutions to successfully “prepare competent global digital citizens (who can) create, share, and collaborate digital learning content and resources in global communities regardless of their socioeconomic status and geographic locations” (Tu et al., 2012, p. 18).

Reflecting perspectives as noted above, Shovein, Huston, Fox, & Damazo (2005) wrote that teachers can influence “an awakening awareness” (par. 10) in others when the learning environment possesses a “milieu of freedom and gives greater than usual prominence to educational experiences in which personal involvement is magnified and intensified” (par. 10).  In continuing support of the above successful teaching and learning theories, Shovin et al. (2005)  wrote that current paradigms include elements wherein “students and teachers are responsible together for education, students are responsible for critically considering reality, the teacher relinquish(es) control and exchanges the role of narrator for one of student among students” (par. 11).  Teachers can experience new freedoms by “consulting with and by engaging students in meaningful dialogue” (Shovein et al., 2005, par. 13). 

New teaching and learning paradigms using technology have transferred teachers into the role as mediator and coach using encouragement to aid learners in developing knowledge more actively.  Shovein, Huston, Fox, & Damazo (2005) indicated that teachers are increasingly challenged due to a heavier responsibility for engaging and encouraging “authentic, meaningful dialogue that promotes caring in all learning situations, regardless of the activities or technology used to support the pedagogy” (par. 22).  In fact, a prominent challenge for teachers is to not find the “best” e-tool but finding the highest quality answers to the many “learning challenges inherent in a global, information-based society” (par. 23).  Answering challenges associated with today’s online teaching and learning technologies that have affected the increased proliferation of learners wanting to be more responsible and participatory in their own learning achievements have impacted the degree of success in yesterday’s paradigms, which are evolving into today’s and tomorrow’s teaching and learning paradigms.

References:

Castro, J.C. (2012, Winter). Learning and teaching art: Through social media. Studies in Art Education, 53(2), 152. Retrieved from ProQuest Research Library.

Dabbagh, N. (2007). The online learner: Characteristics and pedagogical implications. Retrieved from http://www.citejournal.org/vol7/iss3/general/article1.cfm

Illinois Online Network and the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. (2010). Weaknesses of online learning. Retrieved from http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/overview/weaknesses.asp

Shovein, J., Huston, C., Fox, S., & Damazo, B. (2005, November-December). Challenging traditional teaching and learning paradigms: Online learning and emancipatory teaching. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3317/is_6_26/ai_n29227982/pg_3/?tag=content;col1

Tu, C., Sujo-montes, L., Yen, C., Chan, J., & Blocher, M. (2012, May-June). The integration of personal learning environments & open network learning environments. TechTrends, 56(3), 13-19. Retrieved from ProQuest Education Journals.

Uploaded by ProfMTH on Apr 9, 2009: Christians, why do you celebrate Easter?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=osnN0ok7hJ4

Enlisting top level management buy-in to promote and support e-learning

“Innovation will be central to both top-line growth and profitability. Among the many factors that influence a company’s ability to innovate successfully and competitively, the resilience of its innovation organization is perhaps the most impor­tant” (Bordia, et al., 2005, p. 9).  “Change needs to be led from the top.  Senior leadership must set and communicate the vision for the organization, including a compelling case for change.  It needs to reach a practical understanding of what can be leveraged in the existing culture and what needs to change” (Bordia, Kronenberg, and Neely, 2005, p. 8).  “Senior leaders cannot afford to be involved at arms length; they must be actively involved in monitoring and testing the change process.  Most importantly, senior leaders need to ensure they act in ways that reinforce the new behaviors—’walk the talk’” (Bordia, et al., 2005, p. 8).  “New tools are embedded in how the work is actually performed. This requires inten­sive effort to communicate and socialize the changes to the organization. The organization needs intensive com­munication including workshops to create understanding in frontline employees. The transition cannot be success­ful, and will not be adopted, until employees fully under­stand the answer to what is invariably their most impor­tant question: ‘What does this change mean to me?’” (Bordia, et al., 2005, p. 9).  “The degree to which the changes stick depend on how measures and feed­back systems create ownership and accountability” (Bordia, et al., 2005, p. 9).

Ideas to gain senior management’s support of e-learning 

In order to realize maximum benefit from an “e-Training initiative, each organization has to establish business goals, measure the progress of the goals, and provide executive sponsorship and support to achieve the desired outcomes” (CIO Council, 2002, p. 3).  “To build support for (e-learning) implementation requires solid analysis, constant communication, and organizational resiliency.  The success of e-Learning depends on, not just the technology, but also on leadership, human support, alignment of learning topics to the appropriate learning environment, recognition and rewards for participation and success, plus a myriad of other factors.

The CIO Council (2002) explains that “in short, e-learning requires a disciplined approach, with balanced attention to business goals, culture, and technology.  The best practice in achieving these goals is to develop a compelling, data-driven business case and formulate a comprehensive learning strategy that reflects the input of multiple stakeholders. Developing the data-driven business case and formulating the enterprise-wide learning strategy requires a number of activities, which include (1) identifying business or mission drivers and performance measures, (2) assessing learner needs and the current infrastructures, and (3) formulating/refining the learning strategy and implementation plan” (CIO Council, 2002, p. 4).  In addition, the following activities provide an initiative for learning (the Why) and a strategy (the What and How), which represents the key to success by providing the “rationale to garner organizational support for the implementation of a common e-Training system” (CIO Council, 2002, p. 5).  Specifically, the business case for learning defines an organization’s learning strategy.

Rosenberg (2001) provides further rationale for senior management to support a company-wide strategy for e-training program implementation.  As business needs flux, identification of talent within a company provides a strong competitive edge.  Using a knowledge management system sophisticated enough to provide reports about which employees are trained in the skills the company needs, and identify gaps in the employee base of critically needed skills, can be the difference between business success and failure.  Another level of sophistication includes factoring in interoperability into e-learning systems (Rosenberg, 2001).  Seamless compatibility between business’ computer systems and e-learning systems supports a business’ ability to address employee training needs to match business expansion.  Architectures within software systems have been opened to allow for most computer systems to easily integrate with training systems.  Issues between Windows and Apple are disappearing as standardization inroads enable successful integration as programs are built (Rosenberg, 2001).

Suggesting specific ways to encourage senior managers in my organization to support e-learning is not feasible since my office closed 2 ½ years ago.  Since then I have finished my bachelors and masters, and began working on my doctorate in education.  Recalling that after a company purchased the company I worked for, and the “new” company senior managers decided to use the J.D. Edwards accounting software that we used, training for the “new” staff consisted of one-on-one training.  In my case, I trained a senior manager at my office.  Each of the offices across the United States had a support person appointed to help the “new” staff, and that training occurred over the telephone.  One year after the take-over, all employees (old and new) for my region were called to the main East coast office for synchronous in-class training.  The training was essentially worthless for the old employees because they had used J.D. Edwards for more than ten years.  The J.D. Edwards company had excellent online training programs, but my company did not utilize their training programs.  Consequently, if I was in the position to suggest e-learning on the J.D. Edwards’ program, I would propose for all employees who needed the training to receive training online sponsored by J.D. Edwards.

Rosenberg (2001) provides viable suggestions for encouraging senior managers to support e-learning initiatives.  Several of them apply to my work situation discussed above such as educating and coaching executives.  However, the culture within my old company would have prevented trained employees from teaching and coaching more advanced level personnel.

References

Bordia, R., Kronenberg, E., & Neely, D. (2005). Innovations OrgDNA. Retrieved from http://www.orgdna.com/downloads/InnovationsOrgDNA.pdf

CIO Council. (2002). Best practices committee: E-training white paper, an EGov Initiative. Retrieved from http://www.cio.gov/Documents/etraining_white_paper.pdf

Rosenberg, M.J. (2001). e-Learning: Strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age. New York City, N.Y.: McGraw Hill.

Musings from a Christian…paying it forward

The Lord paid the ultimate sacrifice after pain and suffering that no person will ever know the depth of. He never asked for anything for himself because His Father gave Him everything He needed. What has humankind given Jesus but mostly sadness and heartache…whenever we disobey, whenever we break one of His laws, and whenever our will supercedes the Lord’s, these things make Him sad. Is sadness the gift we have paid forward from the gift the Lord gave humankind?

After the milleniums since the Lord gave up His spirit to His Father, paying forward His gift becomes more and more silent. Becoming more silent arises from disobedience because the Lord wants us to love and protect each other. What happens instead? Instead of praising the Lord, and paying forward His gift–dying so our sins were forever forgiven–people praise celebrities, athletes, musicians, and many, many others, and spend most of their time instant messaging, texting, electronic socializing, emailing, watching TV, playing videogames, and doing so many other things of the electronic age. Why has humankind gotten so far away from loving each other, and instead seek ways to hurt each other? Paying the Lord’s gift forward starts with just one person’s effort. Let me know how you’re paying the Lord’s gift forward, if you can.

Andragogical and Pedagogical Teaching Theories

Carlson (1989) presented a notable passage by Knowles, which stated that “teaching is a process of guided interaction between the teacher, the student, and the materials of instruction… Teaching, like medical practice, is mostly a matter of cooperation with nature. The function of the teacher is to guide the student into the kind of experiences that will enable him (sic) to develop his own natural potentialities” (pars. 17).

Choosing which theory to use or mix of theories should depend upon the student’s needs.

Reference:

Carlson, R. (1989, Spring). Malcolm Knowles: Apostle of andragogy. Vitae Scholasticae, 8(1). Retrieved from http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/
ace/resources/malcolmknowles.cfm